Public Relations 2004 Abstracts
Public Relations Division
Shared Involvement and risk perceptions in responding to bioterrorism: An extension of the situational theory of publics • Linda Aldoory and Mark Van Dyke, University of Maryland • This study extended the situational theory of publics into risk communication. Risk communication theories were integrated here to measure their usefulness in extending the situational theory. Focus group participants were given hypothetical news scenarios about a terrorist threat on a U.S. food product. Participants discussed problem recognition, level of involvement, constraint recognition, fear, risk, threat, and social approval. Findings indicated “shared” involvement decreased perceived threat. Perceived susceptibility was central to involvement, and fear arousal was a constraint.
Toward an apologetic ethic: A casistical approach • Sandra L. Borden and Keith Michael Hearit, Western Michigan University • Most approaches to crisis management ethics apply existing ethical theories deductively to the crisis management context. This essay takes an inductive approach by using casuistry to first specify the context that gives concrete meaning to ethical principles. The result of this analysis is the development, in paradigmatic form, of the content (what should be said) and the manner (how it should be said) of ideal ethical apologetic communication when organizations are guilty of wrongdoing.
Cutting out the middleman: Must public relations messages be filtered through traditional news media to gain credibility? • Coy Callison and Norman E. Youngblood, Texas Tech University • Credibility of information presented through various media was examined experimentally (N=240). Results suggest that information presented on Web sites, regardless of host, lacks credibility compared to information presented in traditional media. Likewise, information presented by public relations media is viewed as less credible than information presented by news media, independent of format. Most important to practitioners, information relayed via corporate Web sites lacks credibility compared to information distributed by other presentation formats.
Public nudity on cell phones: Managing conflict in crisis situations • Sooyoung Cho and Glen T. Cameron, University of Missouri at Columbia • Using a case study of news coverage to recount a fast-moving, dramatic marketing PR incident that recently occurred in South Korea, the contingency theory of conflict management and crisis management strategies are integrated to examine how crisis is communicated and managed in a very short period of time. Several types of strategies were utilized by contending parties through the various stages of the crisis life cycle. We found evidence for a new contingent variable that should be added in the matrix of contingent factors—the importance of Internet community and Netizens as organized and influential publics. Netizens played an important role throughout the crisis period in changing the organization’s stance from advocacy to accommodation.
The First Amendment protection for corporate speech concerning business practices: The implications of Nike vs. Kasky • Jounghwa Choi, Michigan State University • In 2003, the Nike v. Kasky case alarmed public relations professionals, because the case questioned the First Amendment protection afforded for core communication activities. This study presents an overview of constitutional history of corporate speech in the Supreme Court and discusses Nike v. Kasky in terms of its impacts on corporate speech and public relations practices. In particular, this paper examines constitutional rationales applied in the Kasky court and debates around it. Several noticeable trends in the Supreme Court’s decisions on corporate speech and implications for public relations professionals are discussed.
The importance of appearing competent: An analysis of corporate impression management strategies on the World Wide Web • Colleen Connolly-Ahern and S. Camille Broadway, University of Florida • Web sites have become important impression management tools for corporations, because they represent a constantly available source of information for an organization’s publics. This study uses quantitative content analysis to assess current corporate impression management techniques, using Jones (1990) typology of impression management strategies: ingratiation, competence, exemplification, supplication and intimidation. Findings indicate that corporate Web sites focus on competence and exemplification strategies, and that they are not using the full associative powers of the Web.
How successful are communication strategies? A framing analysis of political PR during the national debate on immigration in Germany • Romy Froehlich and Burkgard Rüdiger • Our study elaborates on the question how to measure PR success. Our study examines media coverage and political PR during the national debate on immigration that occurred in Germany between May 2000 and March 2002. The findings indicate that it is worthwhile to invest in developing a framing-based instrument for the comparison of meanings and contexts instead of depending merely on comparisons of topics or issues.
Crisis management’s new role in educational settings • Barbara Gainey, Kennesaw State University • This paper explores the status of crisis management in educational settings, focusing on crisis management preparation in South Carolina public school districts and the extent to which these districts are “crisis-ready” organizations. A new framework is proposed for analyzing the crisis-ready status of these organizations. The three Cs—crisis management planning, communication (two-way/relationship-building), and cultural leadership within the school community—are seen as essential, interconnected elements of successful crisis management in the 21st century.
Writing and the public relations curriculum: Practitioner perceptions versus pedagogy • Marie C. Hardin, West Georgia University; and Donnalyn Pompper, Florida State University • Educators and practitioners seem to agree that writing is a public relations curriculum fundamental. Value perceptions deviate, however, in assessments of quality and degree of attention to writing in the classroom. An examination of the writing requirements of 152 ASJMC accredited public relations programs indicate that only a little more than half (57%) require a news writing course. Fewer require a public relations writing course (51%). Nearly 200 public relations practitioners were surveyed as to their perceptions of college public relations educators’ writing emphasis. This exploratory study’s findings suggest that practitioners believe both news writing and public relations writing classes should be mandatory among public relations students; they offer slightly stronger support for news writing.
The impact of CEO reputation, corporate credibility, and brand loyalty in relationship building • ChangHyun Jin, University of Florida • The purpose of this paper is to identify the effect of CEO Reputation, corporate credibility, and brand loyalty in relationship building. This study found that corporate credibility has a positive impact on brand loyalty and the relationship building. The results indicate that CEO reputation and corporate credibility had a positive impact of brand loyalty. Furthermore, brand loyalty also important played a role in relationship building. Thus, CEO Reputation, corporate credibility and brand loyalty are likely to affect by moderating in relationship building.
Different means to the same end: A comparative contingency analyses of Singapore and Chinese governments’ management of the perceptions and emotions of their multiple public during the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) crisis • Yan Jin, Augustine Pang and Glen T. Cameron, University of Missouri at Columbia • Using content analyses of SARS news coverage in both Singapore and China, the contingency theory of conflict management and current crisis management literature were integrated to examine how crisis was communicated at the macro levels by the two governments, what were the stances taken, and what strategies were used to manage their multiple publics. Findings showed that although both countries, which shared similar cultures and media systems, perceived the crisis similarly in terms of severity and attribution, the dominant factors and motivations influencing each of their stances and strategies between advocacy and accommodation were different.
Ready for the rainy day: A case study of labeling issue management in the cosmetic industry • Yan Jin, I-Huei Cheng and Anca Micu, University of Missouri at Columbia • To demonstrate how a crisis management model can be applied, particularly to the state of pre-crisis, the current case study analyzed the media coverage of the recent labeling issues that imposed threats to cosmetic industry. In April 2000 European Union (EU) announced that all cosmetic products would be required to fully disclose their ingredients and allergens, beginning in March 11,2005, which set cosmetics industry at an early stage of crisis. Based on Coombs’ (1999) model, crisis signals were detected by locating media-coverage key issues and evaluating information on industry-stakeholder relationship. The reactions of activist groups were also assessed in terms of their strategies and impacts.
A theoretical perspective on “fear” as an organizational motivator for initiating public relations activities • Jangyul Robert Kim, University of Florida • This exploratory study identifies the correlation between fear and the public relations activities of an organization. A survey of forty public relations professionals in Florida was conducted Fear was identified as a critical causal factor that motivates an organization to initiate or undertake public relations activities. The effect of fear on public relations activities of an organization differed by public relations area, by degree of fear, by public/stakeholder and by type of fear/threat.
First- & second-level agenda building & agenda-setting effects: Exploring the linkages among candidate press releases, media coverage, & public opinion during the 2002 Florida gubernatorial election • Spiro Kiousis, Michael Mitrook, Xu Wu and Trent Seltzer • This study explores the role of candidate news releases, media content, and public opinion in shaping the salience of political issues and candidate images during the 2002 Florida gubernatorial election. The study analyzed 77 public relations releases, 1,538 newspaper stories, and public opinion data from a statewide survey of 572 respondents. Significant correlations were found supporting both first- and second-level agenda-building and agenda-setting effects, working to inform strategies of public relations practitioners involved in political campaigns.
Friends in high places: States legislators as targets of public school PR campaigns • Tien-Tsung Lee, Washington State University; and Mark M. Havens, Havens CPR • State legislators are an essential public for school public relations efforts at any time, but especially during a state budget crisis. To identify effective ways to target this audience, a mail survey of all 105 Idaho state senators and House representatives was launched in May 2002. Findings reveal the most common channels through which legislators receive information about public schools, their self-estimated level of knowledge on various issues, and factors affecting their knowledge. Because legislators rarely rely on the news media for information on public schools, school PR campaigns should not utilize this channel. Alternatives are discussed.
News release flow-through: News release/news article LSA metric • Ernest F. Martin, Jr., Virginia Commonwealth University • This paper describes the exploration of latent semantic analysis (LSA) as possible automated, statistically reliable metric for measuring the degree to which a particular news release influences a particular news article or story. In the exploratory study, LSA provides a useful evaluative metric to indicate whether the news release impacted a news article. Additionally, the LSA metric is useful for relative scoring—potentially indicating strong, medium or weak coherence between news releases and news stories.
From liftoff to landing: How NASA’s crisis communications affected media coverage following the Challenger and Columbia tragedies • Ryan M. Martin and Lois Boynton, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill • NASA’s public relations effort following the Challenger explosion in 1986 is considered an example of crisis communications failure. After the 2003 Columbia disaster, however, NASA was praised for its successful handling of the crisis. This paper identifies how four newspapers presented NASA’s crisis communication efforts following the two crises, utilizing crisis communication concepts associated with stakeholder theory. Results showed that NASA applied these concepts more effectively and received more positive coverage following the Columbia disaster than the Challenger disaster.
Attitudes and aptitudes: Gender differences and outlook on the future by incoming public relations students • Michael A. Mitrook, University of Florida • A national survey is used to explore the attitudes and capabilities of men and women at the earliest stage of the decision-making process that brings them into the public relations field. Female undergraduates and particularly those majoring in public relations have the aptitudes and most of the requisite attitudes needed to become public relations managers. Women were more interested in symmetrical communication than men, offering more versatility and sophistication for the field. However, they appear disinclined to take on the managerial role, envisioning a less-focused career than men envision and opting for technician over managerial positions.
Readers’ preferences for graphic designs by age, generation and life strategies • Linda P. Morton, Oklahoma University • This study examined graphic design decisions by readers’ age, generation and life stages. It used a visual instrument containing three designs for each of twelve design elements. Communicators comprised the 232 subjects for this study. Chi-squares indicated that preferences differed by age for four design elements: informal balance, proximity, rules and typesetting; by generations for four design elements: informal balance, proximity, rules, and typesetting; by life stages for three design elements: rhythm, rules and typesetting.
Research, measurement & evaluation: Public relations educators assess and report current teaching practices • Julie O’Neal, Texas Christian University • This study secured feedback from public relations educators regarding their teaching practices related to research, measurement, and evaluation and their assessments of those practices. One hundred seventeen educators participated in a web-based survey. Although most educators believe a stand-alone research methods course should be offered, less than half of respondents’ units offer a separate course. Most respondents don’t think that educators are doing a good job teaching research competency. Implications for public relations educators are offered.
Exploring global public relations in China’s context • Lan Ni, University of Maryland • This study explores global public relations through China’s cultural context. Culture is first examined through observing dimensional variability together with cultural members’ native meaning making, and then used to explore the influence on both the actual practice and application of principles of excellent public relations in China. Power distance and interpersonal relationship are cultural factors with the most impact. Findings basically support major principles and two additional suggestions are made for the particular cultural context.
Shouting in the media’s deaf ear: A qualitative analysis of the NAACP’s public relations messages in the post-election debacle of 2002 • Stephanye Perkins, University of North Florida • When the contest for the U. S. presidency went into overdrive, the media sought soundbites to put the events in perspective. The NAACP was one of the organizations that sought the media’s ear, but its message of voter disenfranchisement was either drowned in the cacophony or shouted into the media’s deaf ear. This study uses qualitative framing to examine how the nation’s oldest civil rights organization used public relations to deliver its message.
Researching employees’ perception of benefits communication: A communication inquiry on channel preferences, understanding, decision-making, and benefits satisfaction • Gaelle Picherit-duthler and Alan R. Freitag, University of North Carolina at Charlotte • This paper, part of a larger research effort, reports results from a Web-based survey of employees of one organization to examine their perceptions of benefits communication effectiveness. The survey addressed categories of benefits provided, benefits satisfaction, employees’ level of understanding, the decision-making factors driving their benefit choices, and overall effectiveness of communication channels. Results indicated that most employees were satisfied with their benefits communication; ironically, however, many perceived it as a confusing, complicated and sometimes frustrating process.
Conflict and public relations: A hot waste issue in Utah • Kenneth D. Plowman, Brigham Young University • Multiple party negotiations may be the next step in the stream of research combining public relations and conflict resolution. This study undertook a qualitative quasi-experimental design with 11 graduate students taking on different roles in the hot waste issue in Utah. These students framed the issue, defined their self-interests as stakeholders, and then conducted a series of five role plays on the issue. Preliminary findings revealed that contention was the most used strategy, but most often in combination with principled. If those strategies were not successful, then roles players turned to avoidance.
Education and job satisfaction: Toward a normative theory of public relations pedagogy for social change • Donnalyn Pompper, Florida State University • This study investigated how a sample of female African-American public relations practitioners viewed their preparedness for a career that employs few people of color and where even fewer achieve senior-level management status. Focus groups were conducted in Atlanta, Chicago, Los Angeles, and Philadelphia. Little formal research is conducted to evaluate effectiveness of public relations curricula – beyond graduates’ job placement figures. Practitioners report that public relations programs’ failure to address multicultural diversity in the classroom has adversely affected their job satisfaction. A normative theory of public relations pedagogy for social change is offered.
The Internet and litigation public relations • Brian Reber, Karla Gower and Jennifer Robinson, University of Missouri at Columbia • The Internet is an emerging new tool in litigation public relations. This paper explores this new phenomenon of personal litigation Web sites by content analyzing the Web sites of three celebrities who are currently involved in high-profile litigation, Martha Stewart, Richard Scrushy and Michael Jackson. The analysis revealed that standard litigation public relations standards transfer well to the Internet and suggests that such Web sites are a promising means for disseminating and controlling a client’s message.
Value assessment of PRSSA Bateman competition • Cathy Rogers, Loyola University • The competition which the Public Relations Student Society of America initiated in 1973 as a classic case study has changed considerably since its inception. The Bateman Case Study has evolved into a competition where students develop, implement, and evaluate a campaign for a real corporate client. This study includes a survey of PRSSA advisors and a qualitative analysis of winning entries developed since 1999, when the implementation phase was added to the competition.
War and peace between journalists and public relations practitioners: Working together to set, frame and build the public agenda 1991-2003 • Lynne M. Sallot and Elizabeth A. Johnson, University of Georgia • Agenda-setting, framing and agenda-building theoretical frameworks were used to investigate how journalists view their relationships with public relations practitioners by analyzing 381 depth interviews conducted with journalists from 1991 through 2003. Journalists who perceived and accepted practitioners’ roles the most as agenda setters, framers and agenda builders for the media, measured by journalists’ estimates of how much news content uses public relations contacts, reported having better relationships with practitioners and valuing public relations more. On average, journalists estimated that 44% of the content of U.S. news media or the medium for which they worked is subsidized by practitioners.
Managing relationships and reputations in the National Pan-Hellenic Council • Arlana Shields, University of Florida• The National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC) is the umbrella organization for nine predominately African-American Greek-letter organizations (National Pan-Hellenic Council, 2003). The members of NPHC organizations are the “first full line of defense.” People have a greater chance of interacting with general members than with the organizations’ executive board members. Consequently, how members behave and display the symbols of their organizations is important to managing public-organization relationships and to maintaining the reputations of these organizations.
Occums Razor in the contingency theory: A national survey of PR professional responses to the contingency model • Jae-Hwa Shin, Glen T. Cameron, University of Missouri at Columbia; and Fritz Cropp, Munich, Germany • A random sample of public relations professionals assessed 86 factors in the contingency theory of public relations. This study aims at identifying what contingent factors matter most in public relations practice to provide public relations professionals with a refinement of the contingency factors in public relations activities. Support was found for a matrix of internal factors and external factors affecting public relations practice, and particularly individual factors (i.e., communication competency, ethical value, ability to handle complex problems, problem recognition, familiarity with external public) were identified that affect the contingency undertaken by public relations practitioners in a given situation.
Contingent factors in public relations practice: Modeling generic public relations in Korea • Jae-Hwa Shin, Southern Mississippi University; Jongming Park, Kyung Hee-Korea; and Glen T. Cameron, University of Missouri at Columbia • This study aims at identifying what factors public relations practitioners perceive as influential to public relations practice and discriminating public relations practitioners by the distinctive factors in a Korean context. It has some decades of history that many scholars argue what public relations “is” or “should be.” With a qualification of Grunig’s study, Cameron and his colleagues proposed that public relations depend on a number of factors. Based on the contingent factors, this paper looks at what contingent factors are influential in Korean public relations practice. It also examines if the generic rule of excellent public relations is being applied to a non-Western country.
Reaching key publics online: University public relations practitioners’ use of the World Wide Web • Deborah A. Silverman, University of Buffalo • The author conducted a content analysis of all 261 American doctorate-granting universities to determine how they are using the World Wide Web to provide information for key publics. The analysis revealed that although most universities have clearly labeled, dedicated newsrooms linked from their home page, content is often limited. Special links on the home page for key publics were most common for alumni and friends; current students; prospective students; and faculty and staff.
Ending a chapter of their lives: A study of disaffiliation in college sororities • Jessalynn Strauss, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill • This study examines the process of disaffiliation, the process by which members officially sever ties with their sorority organization. In this study, eight former sorority members were interviewed about their sorority experience, their disaffiliation process, and their thoughts on sorority membership and ex-membership. Information gathered from this study will be used to inform a public relations plan for the Panhellenic sororities at a major Southeastern university to help the sororities improve their communication with the university and its community.
Emergent postmodern approaches to corporate communication strategy • Ursula Ströh, University of Technology, Australia •In this paper I suggest a new approach to corporate communication strategy in line with postmodern theories. I argue for a more participative approach with high ethical and moral meaning creation through action science and research rather than the structured approaches suggested by current corporate communication theorists. I further more call for relationship management based on the basic interpersonal relationship principles where ethics, integrity, trust, openness, and listening skills determine the success of relationships. Organizations that favor their shareholders above other stakeholders and believe that business determines success and drives policy should be replaced with organizations that function as responsible, moral, and honest citizens of a larger environment. This approach ensures a positive reputation for the organization through socially responsible change processes that have relational influences into a larger societal community structure.
To give or not to give: Factors determining alumni intent to make donations as a PR outcome • James C. Tsao and Gary Coll, University of Wisconsin at Oshkosh • This study is significant to those schools and departments seeking to develop segmented fund raising campaigns. Segmented campaigns are those undertaken and carried out by individual schools and departments, supplementary to campus-wide efforts. The majority of journalism and mass communication programs have traditionally relied on their campus development or foundation office to conduct annual mass giving campaigns to the entire population of alumni, including journalism and mass communication graduates. However, such individual and segmented campaigns can be costly because departments cannot benefit much from economies of scale in producing and distributing appeals. Further, the appeals are not likely to be as sophisticated in execution as those developed by campus foundation offices. So it is doubly important for organizations considering segmented fund raising campaigns to identify factors that effectively enhance alumni giving.
Analysis of fund raising models at public historically Black colleges and universities • Natalie Tindall, University of Maryland • This empirical study examined whether public historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) predominately practiced the press agentry, public information, two-way asymmetrical, two-way symmetrical or mixed motive models of fund raising. The findings reported the heavy usage of press agency model of fund raising by advancement officers, replicating a component identified by both Alessandrini (1998) and Kelly (1991; 1995a; 1995b; 1998). The impact of the state appropriations and institutional support on the advancement function indicated the relevance of state and institutional funding to the practice of fund raising and dictated whether fund raising would be an effective component of the organization. The most interesting concepts emerging from the research was the emergence of a mixed motive model of fund raising.
Responding to activism: An experimental analysis of public relations strategy influence on attributes of publics • Kelly Page Werder, University of South Florida • Experimental methods were used to examine the influence of public relations strategies on attributes of publics. Specifically, public relations strategies derived from Hazleton and Long’s public relations process model (1988) were tested to determine strategy influence on problem recognition, level of involvement, constraint recognition, and goal compatibility toward an organization responding to activism. Results indicate that the attributes of problem recognition and level of involvement are influenced by public relations strategies. In addition, the findings of this study support the situational theory of publics; however, items measuring level of involvement and goal compatibility were found to be the strongest predictors of information seeking behavior. Findings indicate that goal compatibility is a predictor of strategy effectiveness.
A qualitative study of military-media relations during the war in Iraq: Investigating embedding, discovering relationship theory in action • David S. Westover, Jr. and Margot Opdycke Lamme, University of Florida • This exploratory, qualitative approach to examining media embedding during the U.S. military’s largest combat operation since the Gulf War afforded an opportunity to establish grounded theory. Instead, what emerged were four of the elements identified in the scholarly literature as central to organization-public relationships: trust, access, exchange, and understanding.
Examining the existence of professional prejudice and discrimination against public relations • Donald K. Wright, South Alabama University • This study of a large sample of public relations educators (n=342) examined attitudes and opinions about the existence of professional prejudice and discrimination in public relations and public relations education. A web-based survey and follow-up interviews were used with a sample selected from members of the Public Relations Division of the AEJMC and the Educators Academy of PRSA. Results found substantial evidence suggesting such prejudice and discrimination exists. Nearly 98 percent of the study’s respondents agreed some people are prejudiced against public relations. More than half (56.6%) of the public relations educator respondents said they have had a dean, director or department chair who was prejudiced against public relations, and many of these administrators evidently have made use of exaggerations and stereotypes about public relations while criticizing it. Results also suggest this prejudice is more pronounced among print journalists and journalism faculty than it is among other groups of communication educators and practitioners.
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